ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS【2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载】

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1 Introduction toElectronics2

1.1 ELECTRONICS TODAY4

1.2 THE STUDY OF ELECTRONICS6

Multiple Small Exposures6

Study Techniques8

1.3 A WORD ABOUT CURRENT8

1.4 COMPUTER SIMULATION10

Sample Circuit Simulation Programs11

Using Computer Programs13

PART 1 DIODES15

2The Ideal Diode16

2.1 INTRODUCTION18

2.2 THE IDEAL DIODE19

2.3 DIODE-RESISTOR CIRCUITS20

Example 2.1 Simple Diode-Resistor Circuits22

Example 2.2 Single Loop Circuit23

Example 2.3 Multiple Resistor Circuit24

2.4 IS A DIODE ON OR OFF?—TWO APPROACHES25

Current Test26

Voltage Test26

Example 2.4 Diode Test27

2.5 CURRENT TRAFFIC CONTROL—DIODE LOGIC28

A Diode Logic Circuit28

2.6 AC TO DC CONVERSION—THE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER30

Example 2.5 Half-Wave Rectifier Examples31

AC-DC Conversion32

Example 2.6 Finding DC Values33

2.7 AC TO DC CONVERSION—THE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER34

The Diode Bridge Circuit34

2.8 DIODE LIMITERS （CLIPPERS）35

Top Clipping36

Example 2.7 Diode Limiters—Top Clipping38

Bottom Clipping38

Example 2.8 Diode Limiters—Bottom Clipping39

Symmetric Clipping39

Example 2.9 Symmetric Clipping Circuits40

3The Real Diode46

3.1 INTRODUCTION48

3.2 DIODE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE（THE Ⅰ-Ⅴ CURVE）48

3.3 THE REAL DIODE51

The Improved Diode Model53

An Important Note53

Current Test53

Example 3.1 The Current Test Ⅰ54

Example 3.2 The Current Test Ⅱ54

Voltage Test55

Example 3.3 The Voltage Test55

3.4 DIODE CIRCUITS WITH REAL DIODES56

The Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit56

Example 3.4 The Half-Wave Rectifier57

The Full-Wave Rectifier59

Example 3.5 The Full-Wave Rectifier60

The Clipping Circuit61

Example 3.6 Two-Sided Limiting with Real Diodes61

3.5 DIODE RESISTANCE62

3.6 DIODE RATINGS—THE BREAKDOWN REGION64

The ON Diode64

Example 3.7 Approximating Power65

The Breakdown Region66

Example 3.8 Breakdown67

3.7 COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE DIODES—THE DIODE DATA SHEET69

Catalog Data69

Example 3.9 Diode Selection69

Diode Data Sheets70

The Diode Reverse Current73

Reverse Recovery Time74

Example 3.10 Using the Data Sheet74

3.8 DIODE TESTING75

A Bad Diode （Using the VOM）75

A Bad Diode （Using the DMM）76

3.9 DIODE CIRCUIT TROUBLESHOOTING76

Example 3.11 Troubleshooting the Diode Limiter78

Multimeter Testing78

4 Diode—ReactiveCircuits86

4.1 INTRODUCTION88

4.2 THE CAPACITOR AS BATTERY88

Example 4.1 Capacitor Discharge89

4.3 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR90

Ripple90

Example 4.2 Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Ⅰ92

Example 4.3 Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Ⅱ93

rms Ripple Factor93

4.4 THE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR94

Example 4.4 Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor95

Rectifier with Transformer95

Example 4.5 Bridge Rectifier with Transformer96

The Center-Tapped Transformer96

Example 4.6 Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier97

4.5 DIODE CURRENT RATINGS97

Half-Wave Rectifier97

Example 4.7 Diode Currents98

Example 4.8 Determining the Diode On-Time99

Full-Wave Rectifiers99

Diode Current Ratings100

4.6 THE PEAK DETECTOR101

Example 4.9 Peak Detector101

4.7 THE DIODE AM DEMODULATOR102

Example 4.10 AM Demodulation104

4.8 DIODE CLAMPING CIRCUITS105

Example 4.11 Clamping Circuits107

4.9 THE VOLTAGE DOUBLER108

4.10 DIODE-INDUCTOR CIRCUIT （FLYBACK）109

Flyback Prevention111

4.11 TROUBLESHOOTING DIODE-CAPACITOR CIRCUITS112

The Capacitor112

Example 4.12 Troubleshooting112

Example 4.13 Troubleshooting Ⅱ113

5 The Zener Diode—VoltageRegulation120

5.1 INTRODUCTION122

5.2 THE ZENER DIODE123

Zener Diode Basics123

The Real Zener Diode125

5.3 ZENER DIODE CIRCUITS126

Example 5.1 Zener Circuit127

Zener Diode-Resistor Load Circuit128

Is the Zener Diode in Breakdown?—An Alternate Approach129

Example 5.2 Zener Diode—Resistor Circuit Ⅰ129

Minimum Load Resistance130

Example 5.3 Zener Diode—Resistor Circuit Ⅱ130

5.4 ZENER CLIPPER CIRCUITS131

Example 5.4 Zener Clipper133

5.5 ZENER VOLTAGE REGULATOR CIRCUIT134

Example 5.5 Zener Regulator—Minimum Load135

Example 5.6 Zener Regulator—Regulator Resistor135

5.6 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT VOLTAGE REGULATORS136

5.7 TROUBLESHOOTING ZENER DIODES AND CIRCUITS137

Example 5.7 Troubleshooting a Zener Diode Circuit139

6 Special-PurposeDiodes andOpto-Electrical Devices146

6.1 INTRODUCTION148

Specialized Diodes148

Troubleshooting Specialized Diodes148

6.2 THE GERMANIUM DIODE148

Example 6.1 The Germanium Diode149

6.3 THE SCHOTTKY DIODE150

Example 6.2 The Schottky Diode151

6.4 THE TUNNEL DIODE152

Example 6.3 The Tunnel Diode Circuit153

6.5 THE VARACTOR DIODE155

Example 6.4 The Varactor Diode156

6.6 THE PHOTO DIODE157

The Photoconductive Mode157

Example 6.5 The Photoconductive Cell158

The Light Spectrum159

Example 6.6 Frequency and Wavelength160

Commercial Photo Diodes Data Sheets161

The Photovoltaic Mode163

Example 6.7 The Photovoltaic Mode164

6.7 THE PHOTORESISTOR （PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL）165

Example 6.8 The Photoresistor167

6.8 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES （LED）167

LED Basics167

Example 6.9 A Bad LED Design169

The Seven-Segment Display170

6.9 THE PHOTO TRANSISTOR AND OPTO-ISOLATOR172

The Photo Transistor172

The Opto-Isolator （Opto-Coupler）172

Fiber Optics174

PART 2 BIPOLAR UNCTION TRANSISTORS （BJT）179

7 The NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor180

7.1 INTRODUCTION182

7.2 BJT STATES OF OPERATION183

Overview184

The Active State184

Example 7.1 Transistor Current Gain, β186

Example 7.2 Emitter Current-Collector Current Relations187

7.3 TRANSISTOR RATINGS188

Transistor Power188

Base Collector Breakdown （VCBO）189

7.4 SIMPLE DC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS（IB CONTROL）189

Example 7.3 IB Control with Base Resistor192

Example 7.4 IB Control with Base Supply Voltage193

7.5 THE COLLECTOR RESISTOR196

Example 7.5 Collector Resistor197

7.6 THE CUT-OFF AND SATURATION STATES199

CUT-OFF199

SATURATION200

Example 7.6 Base Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅰ202

Example 7.7 Base Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅱ203

Example 7.8 Base Resistor and Saturation Ⅰ205

Example 7.9 Base Resistor and Saturation Ⅱ206

Example 7.10 Collector Resistor and Saturation Ⅰ207

Example 7.11 Collector Resistor and Saturation Ⅱ208

Example 7.12 Collector Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅰ209

Example 7.13 Collector Supply Voltage and Saturation Ⅱ210

7.7 DETERMINING THE STATE OF A TRANSISTOR212

Example 7.14 Determining the State of a Transistor Ⅰ212

Example 7.15 Determining the State of a Transistor Ⅱ213

Example 7.16 Determining the State of a Transistor Ⅲ215

7.8 DC TRANSISTOR DATA SHEET216

8Troubleshooting222

8.1 INTRODUCTION224

Temporary Breadboard Building224

Prototype Building224

Repairing a Circuit That Once Worked224

8.2 DC TROUBLESHOOTING, BRIEFLY225

Recording the Estimated and Measured Voltages226

Example 8.1 Recording Estimated Voltages227

Example 8.2 Recording the Measured Voltages228

8.3 THE COMPLETE DC TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE229

Troubleshoot the Circuit229

Locate the Problem230

Example 8.3 DC Troubleshooting Ⅰ230

Example 8.4 DC Troubleshooting Ⅱ231

Example 8.5 DC Troubleshooting Ⅲ232

Example 8.6 DC Troubleshooting Ⅳ232

Example 8.7 DC Troubleshooting Ⅴ233

Summary of Examples234

8.4 TYPES OF COMPONENT FAILURES235

Resistor Failures235

Transistor Failures235

Open Circuit Failures in Transistors236

Short Circuit Failures in Transistors236

8.5 THE UNIVERSAL TRANSISTOR TEST CIRCUIT （UTTC）237

Determining if a Transistor Is Good or Bad with the UTTC238

Finding β3 with the UTTC239

8.6 DC TROUBLESHOOTING EXAMPLES239

Example 8.8 DC Troubleshooting Ⅵ239

Example 8.9 DC Troubleshooting Ⅶ240

Example 8.10 DC Troubleshooting Ⅷ241

Example 8.11 DC Troubleshooting Ⅸ241

Example 8.12 DC Troubleshooting Ⅹ242

8.7 TROUBLESHOOTING IN THE LABORATORY244

Why Not Current Measurements?245

Tips on Using the Temporary Breadboard in the Lab246

Common Problems in Using the Temporary Breadboards247

8.8 DC TROUBLESHOOTING ON THE JOB249

Obtaining the Circuit Diagram249

Making Enough Copies of the Circuit Diagram250

9 Biasing for Linear Applications256

9.1 INTRODUCTION258

9.2 BASE VOLTAGE BIASING （VB CONTROL）259

Example 9.1 VB Control262

9.3 THE COLLECTOR RESISTOR263

Example 9.2 VB Control with Collector Resistor264

Example 9.3 Comparison of IB and VB Control266

Example 9.4 VB Control, Rc Variations267

Example 9.5 Variable Base Voltage Biasing269

9.4 THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER270

Example 9.6 The Voltage Divider271

Example 9.7 Approximate Voltage Divider with Load272

9.5 SELF-BIASING THE TRANSISTOR274

Example 9.8 Self-Biasing Circuit275

9.6 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION278

Example 9.9 Voltage Amplification280

Example 9.10 Eect of Rcon Voltage Amplification282

9.7 EXACT BASE VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS284

The Thevenin Approach284

Example 9.11 Thevenin Equivalent Ⅰ286

Example 9.12 Thevenin Equivalent Ⅱ287

Voltage Divider Versus the Exact Thevenin Approach288

9.8 DC TROUBLESHOOTING289

Voltage Divider Problems289

VB-Control Transistor Problems290

Transistor Failures292

Example 9.13 DC Troubleshooting294

10 The Common-Emitter Amplifier304

10.1 INTRODUCTION306

Example 10.1 DC and AC Signal Components307

10.2 DC BIAS LEVELS308

Biasing308

Example 10.2 Bias Level Determination310

DC Bias and Output Voltage Limits311

Example 10.3 Maximum Voltage Swing Ⅰ313

Example 10.4 Maximum Voltage Swing Ⅱ314

10.3 THE AC BEHAVIOR OF THE TRANSISTOR315

Example 10.5 Small-Signal AC Emitter Resistor318

10.4 THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER319

Example 10.6 The Common-Emitter Amplifier Ⅰ321

Example 10.7 The Common-Emitter Amplifier Ⅱ322

10.5 THE EMITTER BYPASS CAPACITOR323

The Capacitor323

The Emitter Bypass Capacitor324

Example 10.8 The Emitter Bypass Capacitor326

10.6 INPUT CAPACITOR COUPLING—THE SELF-BIASED CIRCUIT327

Example 10.9 The Input Coupling Capacitor329

10.7 THE LOAD RESISTOR330

Example 10.10 The Load Resistor333

10.8 TROUBLESHOOTING334

Example 10.11 Troubleshooting Ⅰ336

Example 10.12 Troubleshooting Ⅱ337

Example 10.13 Troubleshooting Ⅲ338

Example 10.14 Troubleshooting Ⅳ339

Example 10.15 Troubleshooting Ⅴ340

11 The Box Model348

11.1 INTRODUCTION350

11.2 THE Box MODEL351

The Load Resistor352

Example 11.1 The Load Resistor Ⅰ352

Example 11.2 The Load Resistor Ⅱ354

Load Power355

The Source Resistor355

Example 11.3 The Source Resistance Ⅰ356

Example 11.4 The Source Resistance Ⅱ357

The Complete System358

Example 11.5 The Total System359

11.3 THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER360

No-Load Gain361

Output Resistance362

Input Resistance363

General Derivation of Rbase363

Formal Derivation of Rbase364

Example 11.6 Box Model of the Common-Emitter Amplifier366

Example 11.7 Box Model of the Bypassed Common-EmitterAmplifier367

11.4 COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER WITH LOAD AND SOURCE RESISTORS369

Load Resistor369

Example 11.8 Load Resistor370

Source Resistor372

Example 11.9 Source Resistor372

The Complete Common-Emitter Amplifier374

Example 11.10 The Complete Amplifier375

11.5 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER376

Example 11.11 Two-Stage Amplifier379

12 The Emitter Follower （TheCommon-CollectorAmplifier）388

12.1 INTRODUCTION—THE BUFFER AMPLIFIER390

Example 12.1 The Buffer392

Example 12.2 Buffer Design393

12.2 THE EMITTER FOLLOWER COMMON-COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER）395

No-Load Gain395

Example 12.3 Emitter-Follower Box Model Gain396

Input Resistance398

Example 12.4 Emitter Follower Input Resistance399

Output Resistance400

Example 12.5 Emitter-Follower Output Resistance402

The Complete Box Model403

Example 12.6 The Complete Emitter Follower404

12.3 THE EMITTER FOLLOWER AS A CURRENT BUFFER406

Example 12.7 The Current Buffer407

12.4 ZENER VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE CURRENT BUFFER408

Example 12.8 Zener Regulation409

12.5 TROUBLESHOOTING411

Shorted CL411

Open CL412

13 Improved BJT AC Models418

13.1 INTRODUCTION420

13.2 BJT TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES420

13.3 THE SIMPLE BJT MODEL423

Example 13.1 The Simple BJT AC Model424

13.4 THE HYBRID-PI BJT MODEL425

The Hybrid-Pi Model425

Example 13.2 The Early Voltage and ro427

Example 13.3 The Hybrid-Pi Model427

Example 13.4 The Hybrid-Pi Model with ro428

Alternate Hybrid-Pi Model429

13.5 THE H-PARAMETER BJT MODEL430

Example 13.5 h-Parameter Model431

Example 13.6 The BJT h-Parameter Model432

13.6 MODEL COMPARISONS433

Simple Model ＜—＞ Hybrid-Pi Model433

Hybrid-Pi Model ＜—＞ h-Parameter Model434

13.7 BJT DATA SHEETS435

Interpreting Data Sheets435

Determining the Early Voltage435

14 The PNP Transistor442

14.1 INTRODUCTION444

14.2 VB CONTROL OF PNP TRANSISTORS446

Example 14.1 VB Control Ⅰ449

Example 14.2 VB Control Ⅱ450

14.3 DOUBLE-SIDED SUPPLY BIASING451

Example 14.3 Double-Sided Supply Voltages452

14.4 THE PNP COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER453

DC Bias Analysis453

AC Analysis—The Box Model454

Gain455

Input Resistance455

Output Resistance455

System Gain456

Example 14.4 The PNP Common-Emitter Amplifier456

14.5 THE PNP EMITTER FOLLOWER COMMON-COLLECTOR）458

DC Bias Analysis458

AC Analysis—The Box Model458

Gain459

Input Resistance459

Output Resistance460

System Gain460

Example 14.5 The PNP Emitter Follower460

14.6 IB CONTROL462

Example 14.6 Comparison of the NPN and PNP Inverters463

14.7 COMBINED NPN-PNP CIRCUITS465

VB Control465

IB Control466

Current Gain467

14.8 TROUBLESHOOTING468

Bad Connections468

Transistor Open Failures469

Transistor Short Failures469

AC Signal Tracing470

Example 14.7 Troubleshooting470

15 The Common-Base Amplifier480

15.1 INTRODUCTION482

15.2 DC BIASING OF THE COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER482

The NPN Common-Base Amplifier482

The PNP Common-Base Amplifier484

Example 15.1 DC Bias Levels in the Common-Base Amplifier485

15.3 AC BEHAVIOR OF THE COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER—BOX MODEL486

Gain487

Output Resistance488

Input Resistance488

Example 15.2 Box Model of the Common-Base Amplifier489

15.4 THE COMPLETE COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER490

Example 15.3 Complete AC Analysis of the Common-Base Amplifier491

15.5 AMPLIFIER COMPARISONS492

15.6 TROUBLESHOOTING492

Example 15.4 DC Troubleshooting the Common-Base493

Example 15.5 AC Signal Tracing in the Common-Base Amplifier494

16 Specialized Transistor Circuits500

16.1 INTRODUCTION502

16.2 THE DARLINGTON CONNECTION502

Equivalent AC Emitter Resistance503

16.3 DARLINGTON COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER504

DC Bias Levels504

AC Analysis—the Box Model505

Example 16.1 The Darlington Common-Emitter Amplifier506

16.4 THE CASCODE AMPLIFIER508

DC Analysis508

Example 16.2 DC Analysis of the Common-Base Amplifier510

16.5 THE CASCODE AMPLIFIER—AC ANALYSIS512

Example 16.3 Cascode Amplifier—AC Analysis514

16.6 COLLECTOR-FEEDBACK BIASING515

Example 16.4 Collector-Feedback Biasing516

16.7 ANALYSIS OF COLLECTOR-FEEDBACK BIASING—THE MILLER EFFECT517

Input Resistance—The Miller Effect518

Example 16.5 Collector Feedback—AC Analysis520

17 The Differential Amplifier526

17.1 INTRODUCTION528

17.2 BIASING THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER530

Example 17.1 NPN Differential Amplifier Biasing531

Example 17.2 Current Source Biasing533

Example 17.3 PNP Differential Amplifier Biasing533

17.3 THE DIFFERENTIAL MODE535

Example 17.4 Differential-Mode Gain538

The Differential-Mode Box Model539

Limits on Input Voltage Difference540

17.4 COMMON-MODE GAIN541

Example 17.5 Common-Mode Gain544

17.5 THE GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER545

Example 17.6 General Differential Amplifier Response546

17.6 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS548

Example 17.7 Instrumentation Amplifiers551

17.7 TROUBLESHOOTING552

Open Failures552

Short Failures553

Example 17.8 Troubleshooting Differential Amplifier Circuits554

Troubleshooting Integrated Circuit Amplifiers554

18 Current Sources562

18.1 INTRODUCTION564

18.2 THE BASIC NPN TRANSISTOR CURRENT SOURCE565

VB Control565

Example 18.1 The NPN Current Source566

Maximum Load Voltage and Resistance567

Example 18.2 Maximum Load Voltage and Current568

18.3 THE BASIC PNP TRANSISTOR CURRENT SOURCE568

VB Control569

Maximum Load Voltage and Resistance569

Example 18.3 The PNP Current Source570

18.4 NEGATIVE VOLTAGE SUPPLY CURRENT SOURCES571

NPN571

Example 18.4 Negative Voltage Supply NPN Current Source572

PNP573

Example 18.5 Negative Voltage Supply PNP Current Source573

18.5 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION575

Example 18.6 Temperature Compensation576

18.6 THE CURRENT MIRROR578

Example 18.7 Negative Supply NPN Current Mirror580

Example 18.8 PNP Current Mirror580

18.7 CURRENT SOURCE BIASING OF DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS581

DC Bias582

Box Model582

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio583

Current Source Output Resistance583

Example 18.9 Differential Amplifier583

19 Power Amplifiers590

19.1 INTRODUCTION592

19.2 THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER—MAXIMUM VOLTAGE SWING593

Symmetrical Swing594

Example 19.1 Maximum Symmetrical Swing595

Example 19.2 Maximum Swing—Common-Emitter Amplifier597

Capacitor Coupling and the Bypass Capacitor598

Example 19.3 Common Emitter with Capacitors Ⅰ599

Example 19.4 Common Emitter with Capacitors Ⅱ599

19.3 THE EMITTER FOLLOWER—MAXIMUM VOLTAGE SWING601

Example 19.5 Emitter Follower—Maximum Swing601

19.4 CLASS A POWER CONSIDERATIONS603

Example 19.6 Power Calculations for the Class A Amplifier605

19.5 TRANSFORMER COUPLING607

Analysis of the Transformer-Coupled Amplifier608

Power Calculations610

Example 19.7 Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier611

19.6 THE CLASS B AMPLIFIER612

Operation612

Power Considerations614

Example 19.8 Class B Maximum Power Calculations616

Example 19.9 Class B Power Calculations617

Distortion in the Class B Amplifier618

19.7 PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER BIASING619

Example 19.10 Class B Biasing620

Diode Biasing621

Single-Supply Biasing622

Example 19.11 Single-Supply Diode Biasing622

The Bridge Amplifier and Phase Splitter623

19.8 TROUBLESHOOTING624

Short Circuit Failures625

Example 19.12 Q2 Short Failures626

Open Circuit Failures626

PART 3 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS （FET）637

20 The Field Effect Transistor638

20.1 INTRODUCTION640

20.2 THE JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR （JFET）641

JFET Operating States644

Example 20.1 Determining the Pinch-Off Voltage644

BJT SATURATION Region—JFET OHMIC Region645

Example 20.2 The OHMIC Region646

20.3 ACTIVE REGION DRAIN CURRENT VS.GATE VOLTAGE （ID-VGS）647

The ID-VGs Curve647

Example 20.3 Constructing the ID-VGS Curve648

The CUT-OFF, PINCH-OFF Confusion649

20.4 BASIC N-CHANNEL JFET BIASING650

Example 20.4 N-Channel JFET Biasing651

Example 20.5 The OHMIC Region652

20.5 SINGLE-SOURCE JFET BIASING （GRAPHICAL）653

Determining the Q-Point653

Example 20.6 Graphical Bias Calculations655

But I Can’t Find the JFET Ⅰ-Ⅴ Curve!656

Example 20.7 Constructing the JFET Ⅰ-V Curve657

20.6 SINGLE-SOURCE JFET BIASING （ANALYTICAL）657

Example 20.8 Analytical Bias Calculation658

20.7 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIASING659

Example 20.9 Voltage Divider Biasing661

Analytical Calculation of Bias Levels661

Example 20.10 Voltage Divider Biasing—Analytical Calculation662

The Universal JFET Ⅰ-V Curve662

20.8 THE P-CHANNEL JFET663

Finding Bias Values663

Example 20.11 P-Channel Biasing （VG = OV）664

Example 20.12 Voltage Divider P-Channel Biasing665

Analytical Calculations667

Example 20.13 Analytical Bias Calculation （VG = OV）667

Example 20.14 Voltage Divider Biasing—Analytical668

20.9 JFET DATA SHEETS AND COMPUTER MODELS668

JFET Specifications670

JFET Computer Model670

Example 20.15 Data Sheet Parameters and Computer Model Parameters671

20.10 TROUBLESHOOTING THE JFET672

Out-of-Circuit Tests672

DC Troubleshooting of JFET Circuits673

Example 20.16 DC Troubleshooting674

21 The MOSFET682

21.1 INTRODUCTION684

21.2 THE N-CHANNEL D-MOSFET684

Structure and Function684

Example 21.1 Biasing the D-MOSFET, Depletion Region686

Example 21.2 Biasing the D-MOSFET, Enhancement Region687

Example 21.3 D-MOSFET Biasing, Analytical Method688

The Almost Universal N-Channel D-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve688

21.3 THE P-CHANNEL D-MOSFET689

Structure and Function689

Example 21.4 Biasing the P-Channel D-MOSFET690

Example 21.5 P-Channel D-MOSFET Biasing, AnalyticalMethod691

The Almost Universal P-Channel D-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve692

21.4 THE N-CHANNEL E-MOSFET692

Structure and Function692

Example 21.6 N-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing693

Analytical N-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing694

Example 21.7 N-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing, Analytical Method695

The Almost-Universal N-Channel E-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve695

21.5 THE P-CHANNEL E-MOSFET696

Structure and Function696

Example 21.8 P-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing696

Analytical P-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing697

Example 21.9 P-Channel E-MOSFET Biasing, Analytical Method698

The Almost Universal P-Channel E-MOSFET Ⅰ-V Curve698

21.6 MOSFET DATA SHEETS AND COMPUTER MODELS699

Data Sheets699

21.7 THE COMPLEMENTARY MOSFET （CMOS）—AN INVERTER703

21.8 OTHER MOSFETs704

Power FETs705

Dual-Gate MOSFETs705

The MESFET705

21.9 DC TROUBLESHOOTING MOSFET CIRCUITS705

DC Troubleshooting the D-MOSFET705

Open Failures706

Short Failures707

DC Troubleshooting the E-MOSFET707

22FET AC Behavior and Applications716

22.1 INTRODUCTION718

22.2 FET AC MODEL718

Determining gm for the JFET and D-MOSFET719

Example 22.1 Finding gm for the JFET720

Determining gm for the E-MOSFET720

Example 22.2 Finding gm for the E-MOSFET721

FET Data Sheets and AC Parameters721

FET OHMIC Region Resistance724

22.3 THE COMMON-SOURCE FET AMPLIFIER725

Common Source Box Model Parameters725

Example 22.3 The Common-Source Amplifier726

22.4 ADDITIONAL FET CIRCUITS728

Example 22.4 The FET Follower729

22.5 FET-BJT CIRCUITS731

22.6 THE VOLTAGE VARIABLE RESISTOR732

Resistance of FET733

Example 22.5 The FET as a Voltage Variable Resistor733

Automatic Gain Control （AGC）734

22.7 CMOS LOGIC CIRCUITS735

Inverter735

NAND Gate736

NOR Gate737

Special Topic FET Modeling739

BJT Models739

FET Models740

PART 4 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS745

23 The Operational Amplifier（OP-AMP）746

23.1 INTRODUCTION748

23.2 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER （OP-AMP）748

23.3 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK750

Talking Around the Loop751

The General Negative Feedback Amplifier753

Example 23.1 Closed-Loop Gain754

High Forward Gain755

23.4 THE NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER—TALKING AROUND THE LOOP756

The Unity-Gain Amplifier （Buffer Amplifier）756

Example 23.2 The Unity-Gain （Buffer） Amplifier757

The Non-Inverting Amplifier758

Example 23.3 The Non-Inverting Amplifier759

Example 23.4 Non-Inverting Amplifier Design760

23.5 THE INVERTING AMPLIFIER—TALKING AROUND THE LOOP760

Example 23.5 The Inverting Amplifier762

Example 23.6 The Inverting Amplifier, Design762

23.6 THE IDEAL OP-AMP763

Non-Inverting Amplifier764

Example 23.7 The Non-Inverting Amplifier765

Inverting Amplifier766

Example 23.8 The Inverting Op-Amp Amplifier767

23.7 THE REAL OP-AMP768

Input Bias Current769

Example 23.9 The Non-Inverting Amplifier770

Input Offset Voltage771

Bandwidth （Gain-Bandwidth Product）771

Example 23.10 Bandwidth and Gain-Bandwidth Product772

Rise Time and Slew Rate772

Op-Amp Data Sheets773

23.8 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS776

23.9 TROUBLESHOOTING OP-AMP CIRCUITS778

Example 23.11 Op-Amp Troubleshooting778

24 Operational Amplifier Circuits788

24.1 INTRODUCTION790

Non-Inverting Amplifier790

Unity-Gain Buffer Amplifier790

Inverting Amplifier791

Op-Amp Analysis Procedure792

Troubleshooting792

24.2 SUMMING AMPLIFIERS792

Inverting Summer792

Example 24.1 The Inverting Summer794

Example 24.2 Digital-to-Analog Converter （DAC）795

Inverting Amplifier with Buffers796

Non-Inverting Summer796

Example 24.3 Non-Inverting Amplifier797

Example 24.4 Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier798

Troubleshooting799

24.3 DIFFERENCE （DIFFERENTIAL） AMPLIFIER800

Differential Amplifier801

The Bridge Amplifier802

Example 24.5 Bridge Amplifier802

Troubleshooting803

24.4 DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION804

Differentiation804

A Note of Caution806

Example 24.6 Differentiation806

25 Non-Linear Operational Amplifier Circuits802

Integration807

Example 24.7 Op-Amp Integration808

Troubleshooting809

24.5 IMPROVED VOLTAGE REGULATION809

Example 24.8 Buffered Zener with Voltage Divider810

Troubleshooting811

25.1 INTRODUCTION822

25.2 RECTIFIERS823

Simple Inverting Rectifier823

Example 25.1 Simple Inverting Rectifier824

Precision Rectifiers824

Non-Inverting Precision Rectifier824

Example 25.2 Non-Inverting Rectifier825

Inverting Precision Rectifier826

Example 25.3 Inverting Precision Rectifier827

Troubleshooting828

25.3 LIMITERS829

Op-Amp Limiter Circuit829

Example 25.4 Op-Amp Limiter830

Troubleshooting830

25.4 ZERO-CROSSING DETECTOR831

Example 25.5 Zero-Crossing Detector833

25.5 COMPARATORS LEVEL DETECTORS）833

The Non-Inverting Comparator834

Example 25.6 Non-Inverting Comparator834

Voltage Divider Reference Voltage for Comparator835

The Inverting Comparator835

Example 25.7 Voltage Level Indicator835

Troubleshooting837

25.6 SCHMITT TRIGGER837

Positive Feedback837

Example 25.8 The Schmitt Trigger839

Troubleshooting841

PART 5 ADVANCED TOPICS RESPONSE AND FILTERS849

26 Frequency Response850

26.1 INTRODUCTION852

26.2 THE GAIN RESPONSE853

Amplifier Gain853

Bandwidth853

Example 26.1 Half-Power Frequencies—Band-Pass Response855

Example 26.2 Half-Power Frequency—Low-Pass Response855

Example 26.3 Half-Power Frequency—High-Pass Response856

26.3 THE BODE GAIN PLOT857

Example 26.4 Log f Scale—Decades858

Example 26.5 Log f Scale—Octaves858

Example 26.6 3-dB Frequencies—Band-Pass Response860

Example 26.7 3-dB Frequency—Low-Pass Response861

Example 26.8 3-dB Frequency—High-Pass Response861

26.4 LOW-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—COUPLING CAPACITORS862

Capacitor Reactance863

The 3-dB Frequency864

Example 26.9 Simple RC Circuit864

Two-Resistor Circuit865

Example 26.10 Two-Resistor, Single Capacitor Circuit865

The Box Model866

Example 26.11 Common-Emitter Amplifier867

Example 26.12 Common-Source Amplifier868

Op-Amp Amplifiers870

Example 26.13 Inverting Op-Amp AC Amplifier870

Example 26.14 Non-Inverting Op-Amp AC Amplifier871

26.5 LOW-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—BYPASS CAPACITORS872

Example 26.15 Source Bypass Capacitor874

26.6 HIGH-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—THE MILLER EFFECT875

Amplifiers with Bypass Capacitors876

The Miller Capacitance877

Example 26.16 Complete Common-Emitter Frequency Response879

Example 26.17 Complete Common-Source Frequency Response880

Amplifiers without Bypass Capacitors882

26.7 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS883

Common Emitter-to-Common Emitter （CE-CE）883

Emitter Follower-to-Common Emitter （EF-CE）883

Cascode Amplifier （Common Base-to-Common Emitter）885

26.8 TRANSISTOR DATA SHEETS886

BJT Data Sheet886

Example 26.18 BJT High-Frequency Parameters888

JFET Data Sheet888

26.9 OP-AMP FREQUENCY RESPONSE890

The Gain-Bandwidth Product891

27 Active Filters898

27.1 INTRODUCTION900

27.2 Low-PASS FILTERS901

The Ideal Low-Pass Filter901

The Passive First-Order Low-Pass Filter902

Example 27.1 First-Order Passive RC Filter903

27.3 THE Low-PAss ACTIVE FILTER904

First-Order Filters904

Example 27.2 First-Order Low-Pass Active Filter905

Second-Order Filters906

Example 27.3 Sallen-Key Filter907

27.4 THE HIGH-PASS ACTIVE FILTER908

First-Order Filters909

Example 27.4 First-Order High-Pass Active Filter910

Second-Order Filters911

Example 27.5 Sallen-Key High-Pass Filter912

27.5 THE BAND-PASS ACTIVE FILTER913

Relating fL and fH to BW and fo914

High Pass-Low Pass Combination915

Example 27.6 High Pass-Low Pass Combination916

Sallen-Key Band-Pass Filter917

Example 27.7 Sallen-Key Band-Pass Filter919

27.6 HIGHER ORDER FILTERS920

27.7 TROUBLESHOOTING ACTIVE FILTERS921

Low-Pass Active Filter921

High-Pass Active Filter922

Band-Pass Active Filter923

Example 27.8 Troubleshooting the Low-Pass Filter923

28 Feedback Amplifiers932

28.1 INTRODUCTION934

28.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK BASICS934

Terms and Formulas935

Example 28.1 Closed-Loop Gain935

Amplifier Parameter Variations and Non-Linearities936

28.3 POSITIVE FEEDBACK BASICS937

Stable Response938

Sustained Pulse939

Unstable Response940

Example 28.2 Positive Feedback940

28.4 STABILITY OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS941

Example 28.3 Phase Angle and Time Delay942

28.5 VOLTAGE FEEDBACK945

Four Feedback Possibilities945

Example 28.4 Feedback Analysis of Non-Inverting Amplifier946

BJT Feedback Analysis947

Example 28.5 BJT Voltage Out-Voltage Feedback Amplifier948

28.6 VOLTAGE OUT-CURRENT FEEDBACK948

Example 28.6 Voltage Out-Current Feedback Amplifier951

28.7 INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE—VOLTAGE FEEDBACK952

System Gain952

Input Resistance953

Output Resistance954

Example 28.7 Input and Output Resistance—Voltage Feedback954

28.8 INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE—CURRENT FEEDBACK955

System Gain955

Input Resistance956

Output Resistance957

Example 28.8 Input and Output Resistance—Current Feedback957

How Do I Know if a Transistor Amplifier Is Voltage or Current Feedback?958

28.9 CURRENT-OUT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS958

Current Out-Current Feedback Amplifier959

Current Out-Voltage Feedback Amplifier960

28.10 TROUBLESHOOTING961

Loosing the Feedback Loop （RF Fails Open）961

Degradation in the Forward-Path Amplifier962

A Note of Caution963

29 Signal Generators972

29.1 INTRODUCTION974

29.2 THE CLASS C TUNED AMPLIFIER974

Example 29.1 The LC Tuned Circuit976

Example 29.2 Designing the LC Tuned Circuit976

The Class C Tuned Amplifier977

29.3 LC OSCILLATORS979

The Colpitts Oscillator979

Example 29.3 The Colpitts Oscillator980

Example 29.4 Colpitts Design981

The Hartley Oscillator982

Example 29.5 The Hartley Oscillator982

Example 29.6 Hartley Design983

Crystal Oscillator984

Variable Frequency Oscillators984

29.4 RC OSCILLATORS985

The RC Phase Shift Oscillator986

Example 29.7 The RC Phase Shift Oscillator987

The Wien Bridge Oscillator987

Example 29.8 The Wien Bridge Oscillator989

29.5 SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR989

Example 29.9 Pulse Wave Parameters990

Example 29.10 Square Wave Generator993

Example 29.11 Designing a Square Wave Generator993

29.6 TRIANGLE WAVE GENERATOR994

Example 29.12 Ramp Generator994

Example 29.13 Triangle Wave Generator995

Triangle Wave Generator996

The Sawtooth Generator996

29.7 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SIGNAL GENERATORS997

The 555 Pulse Generator997

Example 29.14 The 555 Astable Multivibrator998

Function Generator Integrated Circuit998

29.8 TROUBLESHOOTING OSCILLATORS1000

Example 29.15 Troubleshooting LC Oscillators1000

Example 29.16 Troubleshooting RC Phase Shift Oscillators1001

30 ElectronicSwitches（Thyristors）1008

30.1 INTRODUCTION1010

30.2 THE FOUR-LAYER DIODE AND THE DIAC1011

The Four-Layer Diode1011

Example 30.1 The Four-Layer Diode Relaxation Oscillator1013

The DIAC1013

30.3 THE SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER （SCR）1014

Turning the SCR OFF1016

Example 30.2 SCR Indicator Circuit1016

Example 30.3 SCR Relaxation Oscillator1017

False Triggering1017

Example 30.4 Four-Layer Diode Triggering of SCR1018

30.4 AC SCR APPLICATIONS1019

DC Motor Control1019

Example 30.5 Conduction Angle and DC Value1020

Example 30.6 SCR with Four-Layer Diode1021

RC Time-Delay Circuit1023

Example 30.7 RC Triggering Circuit1024

30.5 THE TRIAC1025

30.6 THE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR （UJT）1027

UJT Basics1027

Example 30.8 UJT Vp Determination1029

Example 30.9 UJT Relaxation Oscillator1031

The Programmable Unijunction Transistor （PUT）1031

30.7 ADDITIONAL THYRISTORS1032

The Gate Turn-Off Switch （GTO）1033

The Silicon Bilateral Switch （SBS）1033

The Silicon-Controlled Switch （SCS）1033

Thyristor Optoisolators1034